HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

The first permanent was an image produced in 1826 by the  inventor Joseph Nicephore Niepce. His photographs were produced on a polished  plate , which he then dissolved in white petroleum. Bitumen hardens with exposure to light. The unhardened material may then be washed away and the metal plate polished, rendering a positive image with light regions of hardened bitumen and dark regions of bare pewter.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce

The daguerreo type proved popular in response to the demand that emerged from the middle classes. This demand, that could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography. In 1847,designed a bellows camera which significantly improved the process of focusing. This adaptation influenced the design of cameras for decades and is still found in use today in some professional cameras. While in Paris, Levitsky would become the first to introduce interchangeable decorative backgrounds in his photos, as well as the retouching of negatives to reduce or eliminate technical deficiencies. Levitsky was also the first photographer to portray a photo of a person in different poses and even in different clothes (for example, the subject plays the piano and listens to himself.

By 1849, images captured by Levitsky on a mission to the Caucasus, were exhibited by the famous Parisian optician Chevalier at the Paris Exposition of the Second Republic as an advertisement of their lenses. These photos would receive the Exposition's gold medal; the first time a prize of its kind had ever been awarded to a photograph. In 1851, at an exhibition in Paris, Levitsky would win the first ever gold medal awarded for a portrait photograph.

Oldest photographic portraits

In 1884 Eastmen Geogre, developed dry gel on paper and film to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's codak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the codak brownie.

 Brownie is the name of a long-running popular series of simple and camera inexpensive made by Eastman's codak . The Brownie popularized low-cost photography and introduced the concept of the low price, point and shot and hand held camera. The brownie camera was a simple, black, rectangular box covered in imitation leather with nickeled fittings. 

Brownie bullet camera

Camera Handling

It is essential for a photographer to know how to handle a camera properly.

First, if a digital camera not held properly, there is no amount of software trickery can rescue a bad picture. In fact, they are many people can make a common silly mistake like draping a stray finger over the lens and also creating camera shake because of bad posture.

When using a Dslr camera, a photographer usually make a good grip with their right hand on the camera and make sure their pointer finger can move freely where the other fingers getting a good grip on the camera. The other hand holding the base of the camera on the lens where the thumb finger on the left of the lens. You must remember draw both elbows toward the body and shoot. By doing a proper holding of the camera doesn't make it a good posture. Lastly, needs remember to stand properly with the two legs having a good stand like a tripod base.

Basic Camera Handling Techniques

Never let your camera strap dangle! 

To avoid the camera swing and dangle, the strap is handy and provides a fine measure of security for the camera. When shooting, place the strap around your neck. Besides, if the camera is in one hand and the reach of your arm, it will make the strap around your neck unfeasible, so needs wrap the strap around your hand to secure it. Furthermore, if you are handling the camera to a friends, please make sure to place the strap over his or her head which is hanging the camera around his or her neck.

Left hand cradles the camera.

Why say ‘left hand cradles the camera’? It means you needs to bring your left hand low to support the camera which providing a base for the body to rest on. Besides, it also used to stabilize the camera body and convenient to locating it, to perform ‘focus’ and ‘zoom’.

Right hand pulls the trigger. 

It means the right hand firmly grip the camera body on its right side. Usually , the pointer finger is used to press the shutter release and the middle finger is used to depress the depth of field preview button which located on the front, right hand side of the body. Besides, the right thumb is used to rotate the knob nearest it, on the top right of the body. Lastly, this change will exist either apertures or the shutter speeds are just depending upon how the camera is set up.

Protect the lens. 

The lens needs a shade or filter on the front of it. It performs a dual role which the first is it cuts haze and provides a very slight warming of the image, and the second is the filter can deflect and protect the more delicate lens. Thus, if losing a filter beats irreparably damaging the lens any moment and day.

Using a Tripod

Tripod is one of the useful tools that used by most photographers which can keep the camera steady under slow shutter speed. Besides, a tripod also can prevent blurred and out of focus result.

In conclusion, practice holding you camera body and get comfortable in using your fingers to make adjustments quickly and smoothly. Besides, protect your camera and associated equipment because it is an investment that can last a lifetime and, if cared for and protected, can even save you money!

Introduction of Composition

Composition

Composition means arrangement which is orderly putting together of part to make a unified whole. The composition can through a personal and intuitive act. Besides, there is no rules to composition, it only guides and extremely flexible principles that may help us to see more sensitively instead of in a hit or miss manner. Thus, we can learn to give form and balance by putting together the elements harmoniously which can help us see a subject in the strongest way through composition.

Rule of Third

The rule of third is the frame that can be divided into three horizontal sections and three vertical sections where the horizontal and vertical lines intersect makes an ideal location for the more important parts of your picture. So, you can give the subject more emphasis than if it was right smack in the middle of the picture. Besides, this is a good technique if have more than one important subject and help to determine how much horizon you want.

Framing

Framing is the tactic of using natural surroundings to add more meaning to your subject such as bushes, trees, a window, or even a doorway.

Leading Lines

Leading lines are used to lure the eye deeper into a picture or to an important subject. It can be straight, curved, parallel, or diagonal lines. The good examples are the roads, rivers, streams, bridges, branches, or fences which there are endless things that could be used.

Horizontal Lines

Horizontal lines is something about a horizontal line in an image that convey a message of ‘stability’ and ‘rest’ such as fallen trees, oceans, sleeping people and so on.

Vertical Lines

Vertical lines can create a variety of different moods in a photograph ranging from power and strength to growth.

Symmetry and Patterns

Symmetry and patterns can be natural and man-made which they can make for very eye-catching compositions, particularly in situations where they are not expected. Thus, it bring a sense of visual rhythm and harmony to photographs that like a series of repeating notes in a melody and also capture the imagination of it. Furthermore, a pattern can appear whenever a strong element of lines, colours, shapes or forms of repeat themselves.

Depth of Field

Depth of field is the amount of distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that appear in acceptably sharp focus in a photography. It varies depending on camera type, aperture and focusing distance. Everything immediately in front of or in back of the focusing distance begins to lose sharpness, even if this is not perceived by our eyes or by the resolution of the camera.

Chapter 2 Exposure tools

Exposure
Exposure is total amount of light that allow to be taken in camera. It can be adjust by using ISO, shutter speed, aperture and metering. If the exposure is too high, it is overexposed. If it is too low light that allow to be capture, then it is underexposed.

ISO
ISO is sensitivity of the image sensor to light. The higher the ISO, the higher sensitivity of image sensor. Different ISO should be use in different light condition. If there is a lot of light, then lower ISO should be use. For example, when in the sunny day, ISO 100-200 should be use. For evening, ISO 400-800 should be use. For night time, ISO 1600, 3200, Hi1 or Hi2 should be use. Higher ISO is use when the photographer don't want to use the internal flash as the flash is not natural. We should avoid to use higher ISO due to the higher ISO, the more grains or noise will produce.

Shutter Speed
Shutter speed is the time that use to take a photo. Shutter speed can from seconds to thousandths of second. The slower the shutter speed, the more light and colour will be capture. A slow shutter speed will cause a blur image. A slow shutter speed also can capture the movement of an object. For example, 1- 6 seconds of shutter speed suitable to use in capture the fireworks or water movement. A fast shutter speed can freeze the image, like the moment or time is stop. Fast shutter speed are use in capture the fast movement object like soccer player playing the game in Futsal. 


The longer exposure (like 1 second) give much more light to the film than a 1/1000 of a second exposure.

Examples:

A half second exposure is ONE STOP darker than a one second exposure. 

A 1/125 exposure is TWO STOPS brighter than a 1/500 exposure. 

A 1/1000 exposure is THREE STOPS darker than a 1/125 exposure.

Aperture

Aperture is referred to the lens diaphragm opening inside a photographic lens. The size of the diaphragm opening in a camera lens regulates amount of light passes through onto the film inside the camera the moment when the shutter curtain in camera opens during an exposure process. The size of an aperture in a lens can either be a fixed or the most popular form in an adjustable type such as an SLR camera. Aperture size usually is calibrated in f-number or f-stops in which each of this value represents one time the amount of light either more or less in quality.

• Smaller F-stops numbers = larger openings
• larger openings = more light

Large Apertures (f2.8 to f5.6)

Large Apertures, such as f2.8 to f5.6, produce shallow depth-of-field. Basically, this means the area of sharp focus in the picture will be small. This can be useful when you want to isolate the subject of your picture while throwing the background and other distracting elements out of focus. Some useful applications of wide apertures include portraits and wildlife closeups.

Small Apertures (f16 to f32)

Small Apertures, such as f16 to f32, increase depth-of-field which means more elements of a picture, from foreground to background, become sharply focused. This can create a distinct sense of depth to a photograph, drawing the viewer into the picture. It's no surprise that small apertures are a must for most landscape photographs.

Lens "Sweet Spots" (f8 and f11)

Due to technical aspects of lens optics, the mid-range apertures of f8 and f11 often yield the sharpest images. When neither a large nor a very small aperture is needed, these are good apertures to use to maximize the sharpness your lens can deliver.

Metering

There are three types of metering: Matrix, Center Weighted and Spot.

• Evaluative Metering/Matrix Metering is the “default” setting on most cameras. The camera sets the metering automatically to suit the scene and subject of the photograph. The entire scene within the camera’s viewfinder is utilized to assess the appropriate metering. This is the mode to use when you’re not sure which mode the scene will require. 

• Partial Metering/Spot Metering is helpful for photographing back-lit subjects. The metering is weighted according to the very center of the shot which has a very small area of the frame. Use this mode when you have a very specific area of the photograph that you wish the exposure to be based upon.

• Center-Weighted Average Metering/Center-Weighted Metering which is setting gives priority to the center portion of the photograph, but also takes the surrounding portions of the shot into consideration. Basically, this is somewhere in between matrix and spot metering. Use this setting when the subject is in the center of the photograph and exposed correctly, so that the subject is not affected by the exposure of the background.     

Chapter 1 Types of digital camera

Type Of Camera

Point-and-shoot Cameras

Point-and-shoot cameras are the most widely used of the three types of cameras.

Most people treat these cameras as they are named in the industry. They pick up

the camera, compose a shot and shoot. They‟re not too concerned about advance

features (e.g. White Balance and ISO controls, for instance) and control over manual

exposure. They shoot largely in Automatic mode, which means the camera sets the

exposure settings for them.

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of point-and-shoot cameras.

Advantages

 Relatively inexpensive, ranging from $200-$400.

 Convenient, lightweight and small enough to carry in your pocket or bag.

 The lens of a point-and-shoot usually has a range of focal lengths, from wide

to medium long.

 Automatic features that help users take photos.

Disadvantages

 Can‟t change lenses and sometimes can‟t use other accessories like external

flash.

 Often slow in operation, which means you might get blurry shots, or you might

miss shots all together.

 May be limited in exposure features, such wide range of aperture or high ISO

speeds.

 Small LCD screen for reviewing images.

Point-and-shoot cameras are your best buy if you‟re not looking to make digital

photography a serious hobby or profession. If your budget for a camera is limited,

point-and-shoot cameras are good option.

If all you can afford is a point-and-shoot camera, don‟t think you can‟t get make

great photos, because you can. These cameras are great for everyday family and

vacation photos. If you own a DSLR camera, a point-and-shoot makes for a great

backup and secondary camera that you can keep in your car or travel bag. Take a

look at this Flickr Point and Shoot group to see the possibilities of what point-andshoot

cameras can do.

Compact Cameras

Compact cameras are very similar to point-and-shoots. Some stores and websites

use the two terms interchangeably. But in my view, I see compact cameras as a little

larger than point-and-shoots, with maybe a higher zoom and exposure range, and a

larger LCD screen. Examples of compact cameras are the Canon Powershot G11,

the Coolpix P100, and the Fujifilm FinePix S2500HD

Advantages

 Relatively cheaper than bottom-line DSLR cameras.

 Camera controls are often easier to access because they are not buried

inside the camera‟s menu.

 Physically larger than point-and-shoot cameras, providing better grip on the

body of the camera.

 The lens of a compact camera usually has a range of focal lengths, from

wide to medium long.

 May include additional features not included in point-and-shoots, e.g. swivel

LCD screen and video capture.

Disadvantages

 Pretty much the same disadvantages for point-and-shoot cameras.

 Can be heavier and more inconvenient to carry around as compared to a

point-and-shoot camera.

DSLR Cameras

The biggest difference with DSLR cameras is that you can exchange lenses, and

they are way faster than point-and-shoot and compact cameras. Examples of DSLRs

are the Canon 50D (which is the main camera I shoot with these days) and the

Nikon D90.

Advantages

 With DSLR cameras you have the ability to use a wide variety of lenses, from

extremely wide and to very long zoom lenses.

 The camera operation of DSLR cameras is a lot faster. There‟s little or no

exposure lag between shots. My Canon 50D for example can fire up to 6.3

frames per second in high speed shooting.

 An external flash/strobe can be attached to these cameras, making for

better camera lighting than the built-in camera flash.

 Higher exposure ranges, e.g. high ISO ranges, additional spot metering

modes, Flash compensation feature.

 Larger size DSLRs make for a better grip and more steady shots.

Disadvantages

 DSLRs are more expensive, starting at around $800, upwards to $3,000 and

more.

 These cameras are of course not compact and sometimes you have to carry

an extra lens or two in your camera bag in order to shoot in various lens

ranges.

Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras

A medium-format camera--one that uses film larger than 35mm--the twin-lens reflex was immensely popular after World War II. It is fitted with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop the other. The lower, or taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film, while the image produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected through 90 degrees by a mirror, and brought to focus on a horizontal ground-glass focusing screen. The light paths to the film plane and the focusing screen are equal, so that if the photographer brings the scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on the film plane will be equally sharp.    

View Cameras and Technical Cameras 

Cameras in this category are used almost exclusively by professional photographers. The most common film formats are 4 x 5 or 8 x 10 inches, the latter often used in the very large cameras found in portrait studios. Film for these cameras is loaded in the darkroom into two-sided holders, which are inserted at the back of the camera. Both the camera's back and front can be tilted in various positions, to permit the photographer to make certain types of corrections in the image. By raising the lens in relation to the film plane, when photographing a tall building, for example, the tendency for parallel lines to look as if they converge is eliminated. 

 Instant Cameras

An instant camera will produce a finished print in from 20 seconds to about 4 minutes. The film, after exposure, is passed between two stainless steel rollers inside the camera. These rupture a chemical pod on the film and spread developing agent evenly over the film's surface. In the original Polaroid system it was necessary for the user to peel the finished print from the base material. Professional Polaroid films, both color and black and white, are still developed in this manner.  Beginning in 1972 with the all new model, the SX-70, Polaroid Instant Cameras eject the developing picture from the camera, and the film reaches its final development in full daylight. The process is completed in about 4 minutes. The Spectra, introduced in 1986, employs this type of technology and a more advanced type of electronic exposure control and automatic focusing system. Like the later SX-70 models, it employs an ultra-high-frequency sound emitter. An electronic circuit in the camera measures the time required for the sound to be reflected back from the object photographed. This time measurement is converted into a measurement of distance, and an electrical mechanism coupled to the focusing circuit sets the lens for the proper exposure.    

Disc Cameras

Since its introduction in the 1880s, flexible film has usually been rolled onto a spool or loaded into a cassette. In 1980 the Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new format for mass-market cameras. Fifteen images, each 5/16 x 3/8 inches, can be photographed on a piece of circular film about 2 1/2 inches in diameter, which is housed in a thin, light-tight film disc. Disc cameras are exceptionally compact, and most are fitted with an electronic flash and a motor that advances the disc after each exposure. 

Electronic Imaging

The world's first electronic still camera, the Japanese Canon, uses a cluster of light-sensitive electronic CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES (CCDS), instead of film, at the focal plane. Each light sensor on a CCD is called a pixel. The pixel converts light into an electronic signal, which is recorded on a magnetic disc in the camera. The more dense the grouping of pixels, the sharper the resulting picture, which is recorded in full color. Once recorded, the image can be "played" on a television set by inserting the magnetic disc in a still video recorder, or a paper print can be made using a new 3-color electrostatic process. The quality of the image, while not as fine as that on the photographic film, is still very good and certainly will be improved during the coming years. At the present time the system will be used primarily by photojournalists, who will be able to transmit the information on the magnetic disc over ordinary telephone lines by using a Canon analog transceiver. A picture taken in Los Angeles can be viewed in full color a few minutes later in New York City.  Massive research efforts and increased production can be expected eventually to lower cost of all-electronic still systems. Traditional film, however, will dominate the market for the foreseeable future. Refferences : Keith will design. Scholl of curriculum in phtography. Camera Types.                      http://scphoto.com/html/types.html                     E- Book make.useoff.com. The essential guide to digital photography by vakari cavanu